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Anatomy and Physiology: Study Guide for Nursing Students

R

rain @rainulan12

Anatomy and Physiology explores how our bodies are structured and how they function. This field helps us understand... Ipakita pa

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

Anatomy and Physiology Basics

Anatomy studies the structure of the human body, while physiology examines how the body functions. These two aspects are complementary—structure determines function, and function influences structure.

The human body is organized in increasing levels of complexity. Starting with subatomic particles (electrons, protons, neutrons), these build into atoms and molecules. Molecules form macromolecules like proteins and DNA, which create organelles such as mitochondria and nuclei within cells.

Cells of similar types form tissues (epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve), which combine to create organs like the heart or kidneys. Organs work together as organ systems, and all systems together form the complete human organism.

Did you know? Understanding this hierarchy of organization helps explain how problems at one level (like a genetic mutation) can affect the entire body's function!

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

Organ Systems

Your body contains 11 major organ systems, each with specialized functions that keep you alive and healthy. These systems don't work in isolation—they constantly interact with each other.

The nervous system controls and coordinates body functions, while the endocrine system regulates metabolism and growth through hormones. Your integumentary system (skin) provides protection, and the skeletal system supports your body and protects organs.

The muscular system enables movement, while the cardiovascular system transports blood throughout your body. Your lymphatic system helps defend against disease, and the digestive system processes food for energy. The respiratory system brings in oxygen, the urinary system removes wastes, and the reproductive system ensures survival of the species.

Important! Every cell in your body depends on multiple organ systems working together. For example, your muscles need the respiratory system for oxygen, the digestive system for nutrients, and the cardiovascular system to deliver both!

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

Characteristics and Requirements of Life

All living organisms display key characteristics of life. These include movement (changing position), responsiveness (reacting to changes), growth, and reproduction. Additional characteristics are respiration (obtaining oxygen and releasing energy), digestion, absorption, circulation, assimilation, and excretion.

Life depends on five critical environmental factors. Water is the most abundant substance in your body, essential for metabolic processes, transport, and temperature regulation. Food supplies necessary nutrients, energy, and raw materials for building body structures.

Oxygen makes up about one-fifth of air and is vital for releasing energy from nutrients. Heat affects the rate of metabolic reactions, and pressure (both atmospheric and hydrostatic) is important for breathing and blood circulation.

Quick tip Think of your body as a complex machine that needs the right inputs (water, food, oxygen) and conditions (heat, pressure) to function properly!

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

Homeostasis Maintaining Balance

Homeostasis is your body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes. This process is crucial for survival and involves complex control mechanisms.

Every homeostatic control system has three essential parts. Receptors detect changes in your body (like thermoreceptors sensing temperature). The control center (often the brain) compares this information to the normal value or "set point." Effectors (muscles and glands) then create responses to restore balance.

For example, if your body temperature rises too high, thermoreceptors alert your hypothalamus (control center). This triggers effectors like sweat glands to activate and blood vessels to dilate, cooling your body back to normal.

Real-life application When you exercise and get hot, your body automatically initiates cooling responses without you having to think about it—that's homeostasis in action!

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

Homeostatic Mechanisms

Your body uses two main types of homeostatic mechanisms. Negative feedback is most common and works by opposing or reversing changes that occur. Like a thermostat, it detects when a value moves away from the set point and activates processes to return to normal.

For example, when body temperature rises above 37°C (98.6°F), your body activates cooling mechanisms. When temperature falls too low, warming mechanisms activate instead. This continuous adjustment keeps your temperature stable.

Positive feedback mechanisms are less common and actually intensify changes instead of opposing them. These processes are typically short-lived and used in special situations like childbirth, where contractions become stronger and more frequent until the baby is delivered.

Remember this Negative feedback maintains stability (like body temperature), while positive feedback accelerates processes that need to be completed quickly (like blood clotting).

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

Body Cavities and Membranes

Your body contains specialized cavities that protect and house vital organs. The cranial cavity encloses your brain, while your spinal cord runs through the vertebral canal. The thoracic cavity contains your heart and lungs, divided into the pericardial cavity (heart) and pleural cavities (lungs).

Below your diaphragm is the abdominopelvic cavity, which includes the abdominal cavity (stomach, intestines, liver) and the pelvic cavity (bladder, reproductive organs).

Special serous membranes line these cavities and cover organs. These membranes have two layers the visceral layer covers organs directly, while the parietal layer lines the cavity wall. The pleura surrounds lungs, the pericardium encloses the heart, and the peritoneum lines the abdominopelvic cavity.

Interesting fact The small space between visceral and parietal membranes contains serous fluid that reduces friction as organs move within their cavities.

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

Anatomical Terminology

Medical professionals use standardized terminology to describe body positions and locations precisely. The anatomical position is the reference point standing erect, facing forward, arms at sides with palms forward and thumbs out.

Important directional terms include superior (toward the head) versus inferior (toward the feet); anterior (front) versus posterior (back); medial (toward midline) versus lateral (away from midline); proximal (near attachment point) versus distal (farther from attachment); and superficial (toward surface) versus deep (away from surface).

Body sections or planes help describe how the body is divided for imaging. The sagittal plane divides the body into left and right portions, the transverse plane separates upper and lower portions, and the coronal plane divides front from back portions.

Clinical connection Medical imaging techniques like MRIs and CT scans use these planes to create detailed views of internal structures from different angles!

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

Regional Terms and Abdominal Regions

Learning anatomical regions helps you precisely locate body areas. The cephalic region refers to the head, while cervical indicates the neck. The thoracic region includes your chest, and abdominal refers to your belly area. Brachial identifies the arm, while crural refers to the leg.

The abdomen is divided into specific regions for more precise reference. The epigastric region is the upper middle abdomen, with hypochondriac regions on either side. The umbilical region surrounds the navel, flanked by lumbar regions. The lower abdomen includes the hypogastric region in the center and iliac regions on the sides.

Clinically, the abdomen is also divided into four quadrants using the umbilicus as a reference point right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).

Why this matters When you feel pain, doctors need to know exactly where it is located. These standardized terms help communicate precise locations to identify possible causes.

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

The Integumentary System

The integumentary system is your body's protective covering, consisting of skin, hair, nails, and specialized glands. As your largest organ, skin performs multiple vital functions.

Skin provides protection against water loss, microbes, and harmful UV light. It contains sensory receptors for sensation of touch, temperature, pain, and pressure. It assists in temperature regulation by dilating or constricting blood vessels and producing sweat. Skin also aids in excretion of waste products and produces vitamin D when exposed to sunlight.

The skin weighs about 9 pounds and consists of two main regions the outer epidermis and deeper dermis. Below these lies the hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue), which attaches skin to underlying structures and contains fat for insulation and energy storage.

Fun fact Your skin sheds about 40,000 skin cells every minute! In a lifetime, you'll shed about 40 pounds of skin.

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

Skin Structure Epidermis

The epidermis is the outer skin layer composed of stratified squamous epithelium. It undergoes constant keratinization, where new cells are produced in deeper layers and gradually push older cells toward the surface. This process takes 40-56 days for a cell to complete its journey.

The outermost layer, the stratum corneum, consists of 20-30 layers of dead cells filled with the protein keratin. This layer accounts for 75% of epidermal thickness and forms a water-resistant barrier. When these cells flake off from your scalp, they form dandruff.

The deepest epidermal layer, the stratum basale, is a single layer of cells firmly attached to the underlying dermis. This layer contains actively dividing cells that replenish the epidermis. Areas of frequent friction develop a callus, where the stratum corneum thickens for extra protection.

Did you know? Your fingerprints form due to ridges in the dermis that push the epidermis into unique patterns, which are genetically determined and formed before birth!

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Sobrang ganda talaga ng app na ito. Maraming mga study notes at tulong [...]. Ang problemang subject ko ay Pranses, halimbawa, at ang app ay may maraming options para tumulong. Salamat sa app na ito, bumuti ang Pranses ko. Irerekumenda ko ito sa lahat.

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Wow, talagang namangha ako. Sinubukan ko lang ang app dahil nakita ko itong ina-advertise nang maraming beses at sobrang nagulat ako. Ang app na ito ang TULONG na gusto mo para sa paaralan at higit sa lahat, nag-aalok ito ng maraming bagay, tulad ng workouts at fact sheets, na SOBRANG nakatulong sa akin.

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Pinakamagandang app sa mundo! walang masabi dahil sobrang ganda nito

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Napakaganda talaga. Nakakapag-review ako ng 10x mas mabuti, itong app ay mabilis na 10/10. Lubos kong inirerekomenda ito sa lahat. Pwede akong manood at maghanap ng notes. Pwede kong i-save ang mga ito sa subject folder. Pwede kong i-review anumang oras kapag bumalik ako. Kung hindi mo pa nasubukan ang app na ito, marami kang nawawala.

Basil

Android user

Ang app na ito ay nagpapalakas ng loob ko sa paghahanda sa exams, hindi lang dahil sa pagpapataas ng aking kumpiyansa sa sarili sa pamamagitan ng mga feature na nagpapahintulot sa iyo na makipag-connect sa iba at mabawasan ang pakiramdam na nag-iisa, kundi pati na rin sa paraan na nakatuon ang app sa pagpapagaan ng iyong pakiramdam. Madali itong i-navigate, masaya gamitin, at nakakatulong sa sinumang nahihirapan sa kahit anong paraan.

David K

iOS user

Sobrang galing ng app! Ilalagay ko lang ang paksa sa search bar at makakakuha na ako ng sagot kaagad. Hindi ko kailangang manood ng 10 YouTube videos para maintindihan ang isang bagay, kaya nakakatipid ako ng oras. Lubos na inirerekomenda!

Sudenaz Ocak

Android user

Sa paaralan, napakahina ko sa math pero salamat sa app, mas mahusay na ako ngayon. Lubos akong nagpapasalamat na ginawa niyo ang app na ito.

Greenlight Bonnie

Android user

napakareliable na app para tumulong at palawakin ang iyong mga ideya sa Math, English at iba pang mga related na paksa sa iyong mga gawain. gamitin mo ang app na ito kung nahihirapan ka sa mga area, susi ito para diyan. sana nag-review na ako dati. at libre rin ito kaya huwag mag-alala tungkol diyan.

Rohan U

Android user

Alam kong maraming apps gumagamit ng fake accounts para mapataas ang kanilang reviews pero ang app na ito ay deserve lahat ng papuri. Dati nakakakuha ako ng 4 sa aking English exams at ngayon nakakuha ako ng grade 7. Hindi ko pa alam ang app na ito tatlong araw bago ang exam at nakatulong ito ng SOBRA. Pakisuyong maniwala sa akin at gamitin ito dahil sigurado akong makikita mo rin ang mga pagbabago.

Xander S

iOS user

SOBRANG KAPAKI-PAKINABANG NG MGA QUIZZES AT FLASHCARDS AT SOBRANG GUSTO KO ANG SCHOOLGPT. PARANG CHATGPT DIN PERO MAS MATALINO!! TINULUNGAN DIN AKO SA AKING MASCARA PROBLEMS!! PATI NA RIN SA AKING TUNAY NA MGA SUBJECTS! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮

Elisha

iOS user

Grabe talaga ang app na to. Sobrang nakakaboring sakin ang pagreview pero ginagawa ng app na to na sobrang dali mag-organize ng lahat at pwede mong tanungin ang libreng ai para subukin ang sarili mo kaya sobrang buti at madali mong ma-upload ang sarili mong mga bagay. highly recommend bilang isang taong nagte-take ng mocks ngayon

Paul T

iOS user

Napakadaling gamitin at maganda ang disenyo ng app. Nahanap ko lahat ng hinahanap ko hanggang ngayon at natuto ako ng marami mula sa mga presentasyon! Tiyak na gagamitin ko ang app para sa isang takdang-aralin sa klase! At siyempre, nakakatulong din ito bilang inspirasyon.

Stefan S

gumagamit ng iOS

Sobrang ganda talaga ng app na ito. Maraming mga study notes at tulong [...]. Ang problemang subject ko ay Pranses, halimbawa, at ang app ay may maraming options para tumulong. Salamat sa app na ito, bumuti ang Pranses ko. Irerekumenda ko ito sa lahat.

Samantha Klich

Android user

Wow, talagang namangha ako. Sinubukan ko lang ang app dahil nakita ko itong ina-advertise nang maraming beses at sobrang nagulat ako. Ang app na ito ang TULONG na gusto mo para sa paaralan at higit sa lahat, nag-aalok ito ng maraming bagay, tulad ng workouts at fact sheets, na SOBRANG nakatulong sa akin.

Anna

iOS user

Pinakamagandang app sa mundo! walang masabi dahil sobrang ganda nito

Thomas R

iOS user

Napakaganda talaga. Nakakapag-review ako ng 10x mas mabuti, itong app ay mabilis na 10/10. Lubos kong inirerekomenda ito sa lahat. Pwede akong manood at maghanap ng notes. Pwede kong i-save ang mga ito sa subject folder. Pwede kong i-review anumang oras kapag bumalik ako. Kung hindi mo pa nasubukan ang app na ito, marami kang nawawala.

Basil

Android user

Ang app na ito ay nagpapalakas ng loob ko sa paghahanda sa exams, hindi lang dahil sa pagpapataas ng aking kumpiyansa sa sarili sa pamamagitan ng mga feature na nagpapahintulot sa iyo na makipag-connect sa iba at mabawasan ang pakiramdam na nag-iisa, kundi pati na rin sa paraan na nakatuon ang app sa pagpapagaan ng iyong pakiramdam. Madali itong i-navigate, masaya gamitin, at nakakatulong sa sinumang nahihirapan sa kahit anong paraan.

David K

iOS user

Sobrang galing ng app! Ilalagay ko lang ang paksa sa search bar at makakakuha na ako ng sagot kaagad. Hindi ko kailangang manood ng 10 YouTube videos para maintindihan ang isang bagay, kaya nakakatipid ako ng oras. Lubos na inirerekomenda!

Sudenaz Ocak

Android user

Sa paaralan, napakahina ko sa math pero salamat sa app, mas mahusay na ako ngayon. Lubos akong nagpapasalamat na ginawa niyo ang app na ito.

Greenlight Bonnie

Android user

napakareliable na app para tumulong at palawakin ang iyong mga ideya sa Math, English at iba pang mga related na paksa sa iyong mga gawain. gamitin mo ang app na ito kung nahihirapan ka sa mga area, susi ito para diyan. sana nag-review na ako dati. at libre rin ito kaya huwag mag-alala tungkol diyan.

Rohan U

Android user

Alam kong maraming apps gumagamit ng fake accounts para mapataas ang kanilang reviews pero ang app na ito ay deserve lahat ng papuri. Dati nakakakuha ako ng 4 sa aking English exams at ngayon nakakuha ako ng grade 7. Hindi ko pa alam ang app na ito tatlong araw bago ang exam at nakatulong ito ng SOBRA. Pakisuyong maniwala sa akin at gamitin ito dahil sigurado akong makikita mo rin ang mga pagbabago.

Xander S

iOS user

SOBRANG KAPAKI-PAKINABANG NG MGA QUIZZES AT FLASHCARDS AT SOBRANG GUSTO KO ANG SCHOOLGPT. PARANG CHATGPT DIN PERO MAS MATALINO!! TINULUNGAN DIN AKO SA AKING MASCARA PROBLEMS!! PATI NA RIN SA AKING TUNAY NA MGA SUBJECTS! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮

Elisha

iOS user

Grabe talaga ang app na to. Sobrang nakakaboring sakin ang pagreview pero ginagawa ng app na to na sobrang dali mag-organize ng lahat at pwede mong tanungin ang libreng ai para subukin ang sarili mo kaya sobrang buti at madali mong ma-upload ang sarili mong mga bagay. highly recommend bilang isang taong nagte-take ng mocks ngayon

Paul T

iOS user

 

GenBio

4,691

Dis 3, 2025

23 mga pahina

Anatomy and Physiology: Study Guide for Nursing Students

R

rain

@rainulan12

Anatomy and Physiology explores how our bodies are structured and how they function. This field helps us understand the intricate organization of the human body from the smallest particles to complete systems, and how they work together to maintain life.

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Anatomy and Physiology Basics

Anatomy studies the structure of the human body, while physiology examines how the body functions. These two aspects are complementary—structure determines function, and function influences structure.

The human body is organized in increasing levels of complexity. Starting with subatomic particles (electrons, protons, neutrons), these build into atoms and molecules. Molecules form macromolecules like proteins and DNA, which create organelles such as mitochondria and nuclei within cells.

Cells of similar types form tissues (epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve), which combine to create organs like the heart or kidneys. Organs work together as organ systems, and all systems together form the complete human organism.

Did you know? Understanding this hierarchy of organization helps explain how problems at one level (like a genetic mutation) can affect the entire body's function!

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Organ Systems

Your body contains 11 major organ systems, each with specialized functions that keep you alive and healthy. These systems don't work in isolation—they constantly interact with each other.

The nervous system controls and coordinates body functions, while the endocrine system regulates metabolism and growth through hormones. Your integumentary system (skin) provides protection, and the skeletal system supports your body and protects organs.

The muscular system enables movement, while the cardiovascular system transports blood throughout your body. Your lymphatic system helps defend against disease, and the digestive system processes food for energy. The respiratory system brings in oxygen, the urinary system removes wastes, and the reproductive system ensures survival of the species.

Important! Every cell in your body depends on multiple organ systems working together. For example, your muscles need the respiratory system for oxygen, the digestive system for nutrients, and the cardiovascular system to deliver both!

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Characteristics and Requirements of Life

All living organisms display key characteristics of life. These include movement (changing position), responsiveness (reacting to changes), growth, and reproduction. Additional characteristics are respiration (obtaining oxygen and releasing energy), digestion, absorption, circulation, assimilation, and excretion.

Life depends on five critical environmental factors. Water is the most abundant substance in your body, essential for metabolic processes, transport, and temperature regulation. Food supplies necessary nutrients, energy, and raw materials for building body structures.

Oxygen makes up about one-fifth of air and is vital for releasing energy from nutrients. Heat affects the rate of metabolic reactions, and pressure (both atmospheric and hydrostatic) is important for breathing and blood circulation.

Quick tip: Think of your body as a complex machine that needs the right inputs (water, food, oxygen) and conditions (heat, pressure) to function properly!

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Homeostasis: Maintaining Balance

Homeostasis is your body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes. This process is crucial for survival and involves complex control mechanisms.

Every homeostatic control system has three essential parts. Receptors detect changes in your body (like thermoreceptors sensing temperature). The control center (often the brain) compares this information to the normal value or "set point." Effectors (muscles and glands) then create responses to restore balance.

For example, if your body temperature rises too high, thermoreceptors alert your hypothalamus (control center). This triggers effectors like sweat glands to activate and blood vessels to dilate, cooling your body back to normal.

Real-life application: When you exercise and get hot, your body automatically initiates cooling responses without you having to think about it—that's homeostasis in action!

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Homeostatic Mechanisms

Your body uses two main types of homeostatic mechanisms. Negative feedback is most common and works by opposing or reversing changes that occur. Like a thermostat, it detects when a value moves away from the set point and activates processes to return to normal.

For example, when body temperature rises above 37°C (98.6°F), your body activates cooling mechanisms. When temperature falls too low, warming mechanisms activate instead. This continuous adjustment keeps your temperature stable.

Positive feedback mechanisms are less common and actually intensify changes instead of opposing them. These processes are typically short-lived and used in special situations like childbirth, where contractions become stronger and more frequent until the baby is delivered.

Remember this: Negative feedback maintains stability (like body temperature), while positive feedback accelerates processes that need to be completed quickly (like blood clotting).

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Body Cavities and Membranes

Your body contains specialized cavities that protect and house vital organs. The cranial cavity encloses your brain, while your spinal cord runs through the vertebral canal. The thoracic cavity contains your heart and lungs, divided into the pericardial cavity (heart) and pleural cavities (lungs).

Below your diaphragm is the abdominopelvic cavity, which includes the abdominal cavity (stomach, intestines, liver) and the pelvic cavity (bladder, reproductive organs).

Special serous membranes line these cavities and cover organs. These membranes have two layers: the visceral layer covers organs directly, while the parietal layer lines the cavity wall. The pleura surrounds lungs, the pericardium encloses the heart, and the peritoneum lines the abdominopelvic cavity.

Interesting fact: The small space between visceral and parietal membranes contains serous fluid that reduces friction as organs move within their cavities.

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Anatomical Terminology

Medical professionals use standardized terminology to describe body positions and locations precisely. The anatomical position is the reference point: standing erect, facing forward, arms at sides with palms forward and thumbs out.

Important directional terms include: superior (toward the head) versus inferior (toward the feet); anterior (front) versus posterior (back); medial (toward midline) versus lateral (away from midline); proximal (near attachment point) versus distal (farther from attachment); and superficial (toward surface) versus deep (away from surface).

Body sections or planes help describe how the body is divided for imaging. The sagittal plane divides the body into left and right portions, the transverse plane separates upper and lower portions, and the coronal plane divides front from back portions.

Clinical connection: Medical imaging techniques like MRIs and CT scans use these planes to create detailed views of internal structures from different angles!

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Regional Terms and Abdominal Regions

Learning anatomical regions helps you precisely locate body areas. The cephalic region refers to the head, while cervical indicates the neck. The thoracic region includes your chest, and abdominal refers to your belly area. Brachial identifies the arm, while crural refers to the leg.

The abdomen is divided into specific regions for more precise reference. The epigastric region is the upper middle abdomen, with hypochondriac regions on either side. The umbilical region surrounds the navel, flanked by lumbar regions. The lower abdomen includes the hypogastric region in the center and iliac regions on the sides.

Clinically, the abdomen is also divided into four quadrants using the umbilicus as a reference point: right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).

Why this matters: When you feel pain, doctors need to know exactly where it is located. These standardized terms help communicate precise locations to identify possible causes.

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
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The Integumentary System

The integumentary system is your body's protective covering, consisting of skin, hair, nails, and specialized glands. As your largest organ, skin performs multiple vital functions.

Skin provides protection against water loss, microbes, and harmful UV light. It contains sensory receptors for sensation of touch, temperature, pain, and pressure. It assists in temperature regulation by dilating or constricting blood vessels and producing sweat. Skin also aids in excretion of waste products and produces vitamin D when exposed to sunlight.

The skin weighs about 9 pounds and consists of two main regions: the outer epidermis and deeper dermis. Below these lies the hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue), which attaches skin to underlying structures and contains fat for insulation and energy storage.

Fun fact: Your skin sheds about 40,000 skin cells every minute! In a lifetime, you'll shed about 40 pounds of skin.

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Skin Structure: Epidermis

The epidermis is the outer skin layer composed of stratified squamous epithelium. It undergoes constant keratinization, where new cells are produced in deeper layers and gradually push older cells toward the surface. This process takes 40-56 days for a cell to complete its journey.

The outermost layer, the stratum corneum, consists of 20-30 layers of dead cells filled with the protein keratin. This layer accounts for 75% of epidermal thickness and forms a water-resistant barrier. When these cells flake off from your scalp, they form dandruff.

The deepest epidermal layer, the stratum basale, is a single layer of cells firmly attached to the underlying dermis. This layer contains actively dividing cells that replenish the epidermis. Areas of frequent friction develop a callus, where the stratum corneum thickens for extra protection.

Did you know? Your fingerprints form due to ridges in the dermis that push the epidermis into unique patterns, which are genetically determined and formed before birth!

Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
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➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
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Anatomy and Physiology
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➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
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➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
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➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
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Anatomy and Physiology
➤ Anatomy - the study of the structure of the human body
➤ Physiology - the study of the function of the human body
"

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Akala namin hindi mo na itatanong...

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4.9/5

App Store

4.8/5

Google Play

Napakadaling gamitin at maganda ang disenyo ng app. Nahanap ko lahat ng hinahanap ko hanggang ngayon at natuto ako ng marami mula sa mga presentasyon! Tiyak na gagamitin ko ang app para sa isang takdang-aralin sa klase! At siyempre, nakakatulong din ito bilang inspirasyon.

Stefan S

gumagamit ng iOS

Sobrang ganda talaga ng app na ito. Maraming mga study notes at tulong [...]. Ang problemang subject ko ay Pranses, halimbawa, at ang app ay may maraming options para tumulong. Salamat sa app na ito, bumuti ang Pranses ko. Irerekumenda ko ito sa lahat.

Samantha Klich

Android user

Wow, talagang namangha ako. Sinubukan ko lang ang app dahil nakita ko itong ina-advertise nang maraming beses at sobrang nagulat ako. Ang app na ito ang TULONG na gusto mo para sa paaralan at higit sa lahat, nag-aalok ito ng maraming bagay, tulad ng workouts at fact sheets, na SOBRANG nakatulong sa akin.

Anna

iOS user

Pinakamagandang app sa mundo! walang masabi dahil sobrang ganda nito

Thomas R

iOS user

Napakaganda talaga. Nakakapag-review ako ng 10x mas mabuti, itong app ay mabilis na 10/10. Lubos kong inirerekomenda ito sa lahat. Pwede akong manood at maghanap ng notes. Pwede kong i-save ang mga ito sa subject folder. Pwede kong i-review anumang oras kapag bumalik ako. Kung hindi mo pa nasubukan ang app na ito, marami kang nawawala.

Basil

Android user

Ang app na ito ay nagpapalakas ng loob ko sa paghahanda sa exams, hindi lang dahil sa pagpapataas ng aking kumpiyansa sa sarili sa pamamagitan ng mga feature na nagpapahintulot sa iyo na makipag-connect sa iba at mabawasan ang pakiramdam na nag-iisa, kundi pati na rin sa paraan na nakatuon ang app sa pagpapagaan ng iyong pakiramdam. Madali itong i-navigate, masaya gamitin, at nakakatulong sa sinumang nahihirapan sa kahit anong paraan.

David K

iOS user

Sobrang galing ng app! Ilalagay ko lang ang paksa sa search bar at makakakuha na ako ng sagot kaagad. Hindi ko kailangang manood ng 10 YouTube videos para maintindihan ang isang bagay, kaya nakakatipid ako ng oras. Lubos na inirerekomenda!

Sudenaz Ocak

Android user

Sa paaralan, napakahina ko sa math pero salamat sa app, mas mahusay na ako ngayon. Lubos akong nagpapasalamat na ginawa niyo ang app na ito.

Greenlight Bonnie

Android user

napakareliable na app para tumulong at palawakin ang iyong mga ideya sa Math, English at iba pang mga related na paksa sa iyong mga gawain. gamitin mo ang app na ito kung nahihirapan ka sa mga area, susi ito para diyan. sana nag-review na ako dati. at libre rin ito kaya huwag mag-alala tungkol diyan.

Rohan U

Android user

Alam kong maraming apps gumagamit ng fake accounts para mapataas ang kanilang reviews pero ang app na ito ay deserve lahat ng papuri. Dati nakakakuha ako ng 4 sa aking English exams at ngayon nakakuha ako ng grade 7. Hindi ko pa alam ang app na ito tatlong araw bago ang exam at nakatulong ito ng SOBRA. Pakisuyong maniwala sa akin at gamitin ito dahil sigurado akong makikita mo rin ang mga pagbabago.

Xander S

iOS user

SOBRANG KAPAKI-PAKINABANG NG MGA QUIZZES AT FLASHCARDS AT SOBRANG GUSTO KO ANG SCHOOLGPT. PARANG CHATGPT DIN PERO MAS MATALINO!! TINULUNGAN DIN AKO SA AKING MASCARA PROBLEMS!! PATI NA RIN SA AKING TUNAY NA MGA SUBJECTS! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮

Elisha

iOS user

Grabe talaga ang app na to. Sobrang nakakaboring sakin ang pagreview pero ginagawa ng app na to na sobrang dali mag-organize ng lahat at pwede mong tanungin ang libreng ai para subukin ang sarili mo kaya sobrang buti at madali mong ma-upload ang sarili mong mga bagay. highly recommend bilang isang taong nagte-take ng mocks ngayon

Paul T

iOS user

Napakadaling gamitin at maganda ang disenyo ng app. Nahanap ko lahat ng hinahanap ko hanggang ngayon at natuto ako ng marami mula sa mga presentasyon! Tiyak na gagamitin ko ang app para sa isang takdang-aralin sa klase! At siyempre, nakakatulong din ito bilang inspirasyon.

Stefan S

gumagamit ng iOS

Sobrang ganda talaga ng app na ito. Maraming mga study notes at tulong [...]. Ang problemang subject ko ay Pranses, halimbawa, at ang app ay may maraming options para tumulong. Salamat sa app na ito, bumuti ang Pranses ko. Irerekumenda ko ito sa lahat.

Samantha Klich

Android user

Wow, talagang namangha ako. Sinubukan ko lang ang app dahil nakita ko itong ina-advertise nang maraming beses at sobrang nagulat ako. Ang app na ito ang TULONG na gusto mo para sa paaralan at higit sa lahat, nag-aalok ito ng maraming bagay, tulad ng workouts at fact sheets, na SOBRANG nakatulong sa akin.

Anna

iOS user

Pinakamagandang app sa mundo! walang masabi dahil sobrang ganda nito

Thomas R

iOS user

Napakaganda talaga. Nakakapag-review ako ng 10x mas mabuti, itong app ay mabilis na 10/10. Lubos kong inirerekomenda ito sa lahat. Pwede akong manood at maghanap ng notes. Pwede kong i-save ang mga ito sa subject folder. Pwede kong i-review anumang oras kapag bumalik ako. Kung hindi mo pa nasubukan ang app na ito, marami kang nawawala.

Basil

Android user

Ang app na ito ay nagpapalakas ng loob ko sa paghahanda sa exams, hindi lang dahil sa pagpapataas ng aking kumpiyansa sa sarili sa pamamagitan ng mga feature na nagpapahintulot sa iyo na makipag-connect sa iba at mabawasan ang pakiramdam na nag-iisa, kundi pati na rin sa paraan na nakatuon ang app sa pagpapagaan ng iyong pakiramdam. Madali itong i-navigate, masaya gamitin, at nakakatulong sa sinumang nahihirapan sa kahit anong paraan.

David K

iOS user

Sobrang galing ng app! Ilalagay ko lang ang paksa sa search bar at makakakuha na ako ng sagot kaagad. Hindi ko kailangang manood ng 10 YouTube videos para maintindihan ang isang bagay, kaya nakakatipid ako ng oras. Lubos na inirerekomenda!

Sudenaz Ocak

Android user

Sa paaralan, napakahina ko sa math pero salamat sa app, mas mahusay na ako ngayon. Lubos akong nagpapasalamat na ginawa niyo ang app na ito.

Greenlight Bonnie

Android user

napakareliable na app para tumulong at palawakin ang iyong mga ideya sa Math, English at iba pang mga related na paksa sa iyong mga gawain. gamitin mo ang app na ito kung nahihirapan ka sa mga area, susi ito para diyan. sana nag-review na ako dati. at libre rin ito kaya huwag mag-alala tungkol diyan.

Rohan U

Android user

Alam kong maraming apps gumagamit ng fake accounts para mapataas ang kanilang reviews pero ang app na ito ay deserve lahat ng papuri. Dati nakakakuha ako ng 4 sa aking English exams at ngayon nakakuha ako ng grade 7. Hindi ko pa alam ang app na ito tatlong araw bago ang exam at nakatulong ito ng SOBRA. Pakisuyong maniwala sa akin at gamitin ito dahil sigurado akong makikita mo rin ang mga pagbabago.

Xander S

iOS user

SOBRANG KAPAKI-PAKINABANG NG MGA QUIZZES AT FLASHCARDS AT SOBRANG GUSTO KO ANG SCHOOLGPT. PARANG CHATGPT DIN PERO MAS MATALINO!! TINULUNGAN DIN AKO SA AKING MASCARA PROBLEMS!! PATI NA RIN SA AKING TUNAY NA MGA SUBJECTS! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮

Elisha

iOS user

Grabe talaga ang app na to. Sobrang nakakaboring sakin ang pagreview pero ginagawa ng app na to na sobrang dali mag-organize ng lahat at pwede mong tanungin ang libreng ai para subukin ang sarili mo kaya sobrang buti at madali mong ma-upload ang sarili mong mga bagay. highly recommend bilang isang taong nagte-take ng mocks ngayon

Paul T

iOS user